logos

The Greek word λόγος or logos is a word with various meanings. It is often translated into English as "Word" but can also mean thought, speech, meaning, reason, proportion, principle, standard, or logic, among other things. It has varied use in the fields of philosophy, analytical psychology, rhetoric and religion.

Use in ancient philosophy

In ancient philosophy, Logos was used by Heraclitus, one of the most eminent Pre-Socratic Greek philosophers, to describe the inherent order in the universe and the knowledge men had of each other in Greek society. Logos in Greek means the underlying order of reality of which ordinary people are only unconsciously aware. It is the "Way things are", the totality of the "laws of nature" in the European sense, and, as such, it is always universal (xunos, the common): universal across cultures, though understood differently in each culture via the parochialism of people's expression of, and behavior according to, it -- only if peoples can recognize this.:

One must follow what is common; but, even though the Logos is common, most people live as though they possessed their own understanding of it. (Fr.2) The common is what is open to all, what can be seen and heard by all. To see is to let in with open eyes what is open to view, i.e. what is lit up and revealed to all. The dead (the completely private ones) neither see nor hear; they are closed. No light (fire) shines in them; no speech sounds in them. And yet, even they participate in the cosmos. The extinguished ones also belong to the continuum of lighting and extinguishing that is the common cosmos. The dead touch upon the living sleeping, who in turn touch upon the living waking. (Fr. 26)

Heraclitus also used Logos to mean the undifferentiated material substrate from which all things came: "Listening not to me but to the Logos it is wise to agree that all [things] are one." In this sense Logos is Heraclitus' answer to the Pre-Socratic question of what the arche is of all things. Logos therefore designates both the material substrate itself and the universal, mechanical, "just" Way in which this substrate manifests itself in and as individual things; that is, it subsumes within itself the later Platonic distinction (in Timaeus) between "form" and "matter".

By the time of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, logos was the term used to describe the faculty of human reason and the knowledge men had of the world and of each other. Plato allowed his characters to engage in the conceit of describing logos as a living being in some of his dialogues. The development of the Academy with hypomnemata brought logos closer to the literal text. Aristotle, who studied under Plato and who was much more of a practical thinker, first developed the concept of logic as a depiction of the rules of human rationality.

The Stoics understood Logos as the animating power of the universe, (as it is also presently understood today in Theosophical terms and by the Rosicrucians in their conception of the cosmos) which further influenced how this word was understood later on (in 20th century psychology, for instance).

Logos is also derived from the Greek word "caverna."

Use in rhetoric

In rhetoric, logos is one of the three modes of persuasion (the other two are pathos, emotional appeal; and ethos, the qualification of the speaker or distinguished character sentiment or morality). Logos refers to logical appeal, and in fact the term logic evolves from it. Logos normally implies numbers, polls, and other mathematical or scientific data.

Logos has many advantages:

• Data is hard to manipulate, meaning that it is harder to argue against a logos argument.
• For the same reason, it may sway cynical listeners to the speaker's opinion.
• Logos enhances ethos by making the speaker look prepared and knowledgeable to the audience.

Logos also has many disadvantages:

• Numbers may not be obvious to many listeners, so the argument may pass unheeded.
• Uses of logos raise the question, "But why should I care?" because they are not as involving as emotional appeal.
• Uses of logos can be confusing in some instances.
• From an Integral perspective, it is only one mode of inquiry with it's own truth claim. The disadvantage being that this truth claim may be illogicaly used as exclusive proof of the superiority of the quantifiable (logos) from internal perspectives (such as phenomenology).

Use in Christianity

See also: Jesus Christ the Logos

In Christianity, the prologue of the Gospel of John calls Jesus "the Logos" (usually translated as "the Word" in English bibles such as the KJV) and played a central role in establishing the doctrine of Jesus' divinity and the Trinity. (See Christology.) The opening verse reads: "In the beginning was the Logos, and the Logos was with God, and the Logos was God."

Some scholars of the Bible have suggested that John made creative use of double meaning in the word "Logos" to communicate to both Jews, who were familiar with the Wisdom tradition in Judaism, and Hellenists, especially followers of Philo. Each of these two groups had its own history associated with the concept of the Logos, and each could understand John's use of the term from one or both of those contexts. Especially for the Hellenists, however, John turns the concept of the Logos on its head when he claimed "the Logos became flesh and dwelt among us" (v. 14). Similarly, some translations of the Gospel of John into Chinese have used the word "Tao (道)" to translate the "Logos" in a provocative way.

Gordon Clark famously translated Logos as "Logic" in the opening verses of the Gospel: "In the beginning was the Logic, and the Logic was with God and the Logic was God." He meant to imply by this translation that the laws of logic were contained in the Bible itself and were therefore not a secular principle imposed on the Christian worldview.

On April 1, 2005, Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (who would later become Pope Benedict XVI) referred to the Christian religion as the religion of the Logos:

"From the beginning, Christianity has understood itself as the religion of the Logos, as the religion according to reason. ... It has always defined men, all men without distinction, as creatures and images of God, proclaiming for them ... the same dignity. In this connection, the Enlightenment is of Christian origin and it is no accident that it was born precisely and exclusively in the realm of the Christian faith. ... It was and is the merit of the Enlightenment to have again proposed these original values of Christianity and of having given back to reason its own voice ... Today, this should be precisely [Christianity's] philosophical strength, in so far as the problem is whether the world comes from the irrational, and reason is not other than a 'sub-product', on occasion even harmful of its development — or whether the world comes from reason, and is, as a consequence, its criterion and goal. ... In the so necessary dialogue between secularists and Catholics, we Christians must be very careful to remain faithful to this fundamental line: to live a faith that comes from the Logos, from creative reason, and that, because of this, is also open to all that is truly rational." ^[1]

He referred to this concept again in a controversial speech in September 2006.

Similar concepts

Within Eastern religions there are ideas with varying degrees of similarity to the philosophical and Christian uses. Five concepts with some parallels to Logos are Tao, the Vedic notion of rta, the Hindu and Buddhist conception of dharma, Aum (from Hindu cosmology), and the Egyptian Maat. These are all iconic terms of various cultures that have the meaning that Logos has: the order and orderliness of the world, and, at the same time, the material source of the world.

In New Age mysticism, the Odic force is sometime described as "the physical manifestation of the creative Logos."^{citation needed]}

In ancient Egyptian mythology, Hu was the deification of the word spoken to create existence. Ma'at was the concept, and goddess, of divine order.

In Surat Shabda Yoga, Shabda is considered to be analogous to the Logos as representative of the supreme being in Christianity.